More Than Just a Heart of Darkness - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2280 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/06/14 Category Literature Essay Level High school Tags: Heart of Darkness Essay Did you like this example? The Antichrist is quite a peculiar and mysterious character of the Bible, appearing at the end times of man as an asset of the Devil, tasked with leading many away from the light of God. Though referenced only a handful of times in the Bible, the speculation of this ominous creature is broad and extensive, including many writings of what he may be like, when he will arrive on Earth, and what he will do. Heart of Darkness yields itself to a wide variety of interpretations, one of which is interpreting the story to be that of the Antichrist due to the countless evil descriptions within this dark recounting of travelling to Africa. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "More Than Just a Heart of Darkness" essay for you Create order The story depicts a man, Kurtz, who transcends those above him and has acquired such a following for his eloquence and hellish ways that his traits mirror those of the foretold Angel of Darkness. The nature of the characters in addition with the story as a whole present Heart of Darkness to merely be an interpretation of the Antichristrs reign upon the Earth. To begin, the setting and various locations are described in hellish or dark manners, suggesting the ominous presence of both the end times and the Antichrist. Many descriptions of Africa by Marlow reinforce its similarities to that of Hell, which is where the Antichrist dwells before entering Earth. In detailing the beginnings of his adventure, Marlow describes Africa by saying, It had become a place of darkness. But there was in it one river especially resembling an immense snake uncoiled (Conrad 5-6). The key notion in this excerpt is that Marlow identifies Africa as a place of darkness. Much like the Christian interpretation of Hell, Africa in Heart of Darkness represents a gloomy and sinful location, separated from the light of God and purity. Thus, in Marlow describing Africa as dark, the reader can infer it symbolizes an evil location similar to that of Hell. To further this hellish imagery, Marlow notes the large river in Africa resembles a snake uncoiled. Snake imagery is co mmonplace in Biblical tales. The notion of a snake, particular in the story of Adam and Eve, represents temptation as a whole and Satan himself. The snake embodies the devil along with all that is dark in the world. The presence of a snake signifies temptation and unholiness are present Therefore, the inclusion of this snake-like river supplements attributes of Africa to being a location of sin and evil, which certainly mirrors that of Hell. Similarly, more direct notes by Marlow add to the interpretation of Africa as being Hell, which in turn supports Kurtz as being the Antichrist. Once first entering Africa, Marlow expresses he had stepped into the gloomy circle of inferno (Conrad 14). Keywords such as inferno repeat constantly throughout the text as Marlow attempts to describe his depressing location. The consistency of this fiery imagery is evident throughout all of Marlowrs journey in Africa and increases as he inches closer and closer to Kurtz. Of course, Inferno is synonymous with Hell, furthering the proposition of Africa symbolizing Hell. While Africa may not be literal Hell, the presentation of the continent as such a malicious and wicked entity presents a proper setting where the unholy would dwell, indicating it would be a suitable location for the Antichrist once he is sent to control Earth. Likewise, the inclusion of entering this gloomy location presents Africa truly as an area different from the rest, requiring a physical crossing to experience its hellish effects. The overall depressing atmosphere of the location embodies the dark and dreary events which take place in this location. As Marlow seemingly wanders through his life and enters Africa, he physically comprehends the malevolence manifested within the nation, allowing the reader to interpret the location as dark and satanic. While possible to interpret these descriptions as a hyperbole to dramatize the anecdote which this whole tale is, biblical references to other locations in the stor y make a religious interpretation of the text more plausible and differentiate Europe from Africa much like Earth and Hell. Before travelling to Africa, Marlow was required to travel to Brussels to meet with a doctor and the ivory company which he sought employment from. He describes in his venture, I arrived in a city that always makes me think of a whited sepulcher (Conrad 7). The term whited sepulcher is a direct reference to verse in the Bible, where it states, Woe unto you hypocrites! For ye are like unto whited sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead menrs bones, and of all uncleanness (Matthew 23. 27-28). Thus, the city of Brussels, and presumably the rest of Europe, is representative of mankind: sinful while attempting to be righteous. At the time of the Antichristrs arrival, those who have lived sin-free lives will be sent to Heaven during the event that is known as Rapture, resulting in only those who have sinned to remain on Earth. P articularly, those who will remain on the planet deny their wrongdoings, much like how Marlow considers the people of Brussels to be. Thus, the titling of Brussels as such directly supports the overall religious interpretation of the book, making the notion of Kurtz as the Antichrist and Africa as Hell on Earth more plausible in Marlowrs retelling of his adventure. Similarly, the description of the city also provides context to what Marlow serves in this story, being a misguided wanderer, which will be elaborated upon later in this essay. While many of these attributions to locations by Marlow may merely be an exaggeration, the evidence of choice words in characterizing Africa as a hellish location and Europe, through the city of Brussels, as a sinful Earth promote the interpretation of Kurtz being a portrayal of the Angel of Darkness. With the setting now interpreted, a plethora or interactions and events swarming around Kurtz strongly mirror his character to that of the foretold Antichrist. One of the key attributes of the Antichrist is that he will be worshipped much like a God, as stated in the Bible, He sets himself up in Godrs temple, proclaiming himself to be God (2, Thes 2:3-4). While Kurtz never explicitly describes himself as God, he certainly does amass followers who praise him; in Marlowrs anecdote with his crew, he emphasizes, I became as much of a pretense as the rest of the bewitched pilgrims (Conrad 24). By using the term pilgrims to describe the followers of Kurtz, Marlow asserts a religious aspect of sorts to those who praise him. Like those who are pilgrims of God, these pilgrims in Heart of Darkness acknowledge Kurtz to be a superior being and place wholehearted faith in him. As such, Kurtz represents a false shepherd, who guides those away from the light of God, which is precisely what the Anti christ seeks to do. Likewise, Marlow describes his state as a pretense like the others who were bewitched. Such choice words yield to the idea Kurtzrs influence and allure holds supernatural powers over the people of Earth and entices them away from God. Much like the Antichrist using his powers granted from Satan, Kurtzrs amazing capabilities to fascinate people lead to those worshipping him, thus drawing a connection between Kurtz and the Antichrist. Another peculiar attribute of the Antichrist is that he, once on Earth, will influence a large portion of the worldrs economy, as seen from Revelation 13:16-17 ([The Antichrist] forced all people to receive a mark so that they could not buy or sell unless they had the mark). Though Kurtz has not quite gotten there yet, he does contribute largely to the ivory company and is rapidly progressing up the totem pole of power. When the manager discusses with Marlow, he notes, Oh, he will go far, very far He will be a somebody in the administ ration before long (Conrad 16). Straightforwardly, this implies Kurtz is advancing in a capitalistic sense as he gains more control and power. If truly the Antichrist, his end goal would be to not stop until he controls the whole world economically, which, based on his overall demeanor in the text, is plausible. As well, the use of before long in the quote implies Kurtz is rapidly, and possibly unfathomably, acquiring power, which certainly supports the notion of his end goal being to control all of the world. Thus, Kurtzrs involvement and status in the ivory trade provides a moderate correlation to him being the Antichrist, as they both seek economic power to control the world. Furthermore, a core feature of the Antichrist is the eloquence with which he speaks to oppose God, as noted in the Bible, And he was given a mouth speaking great things and blasphemies (Revelation 13:5). Similarly, one of Kurtzrs defining characteristics is his sophisticated manner of speech that is seemingl y enchanting. Near halfway through his story, Marlow adds about Kurtz, Of all his gifts the one that stood out was his ability to talk, his words the pulsating stream of light, or the deceitful flow from the heart of an impenetrable darkness (Conrad 43). As being one of the defining features in the eyes of Marlow, Kurtzrs eloquence supersedes that of a normal man. His speaking results in others succumbing to his beliefs and creates an allure for those around, much like the pilgrims and Marlow were drawn to Kurtz from his fabled speaking. Marlow notes he is unable to distinguish the origin from which Kurtzrs capability of speech originates from As the Antichrist fools followers of God to believe him, Kurtz seemingly has fooled both Marlow and countless others as one cannot differentiate whether he is good or evil. Nothing is quite truer of the false shepherd than this notion of ambiguity, where one is unable to discern his intentions; thus, Kurtzrs capability of speech, which include s the unknown origin of this gift, supports he is the Antichrist. Now a major fault one may consider in this interpretation is how possibly could Kurtz be the Antichrist if he clearly dies in the text, when a servant states to Marlow, Mistah Kurtz he dead (Conrad 64). However, the Antichrist indeed does die, only to be revived by Satan later on; the Bible states, his fatal wound was healed (Revelation 13:3). As Kurtz is torn away from the heart of darkness that is Africa, he becomes even more frail than he once was and dies. This can be seen as Kurtz is no longer shielded from the light of God as he is removed from the recesses of the jungle and is therefore killed for being the Antichrist. Likewise, the death of the Antichrist by the Lord is only temporary, as he later returns from the help of Satan; thus, the death of Kurtz does not hinder the viewpoint of him as the Antichrist, but rather mirrors and event that occurs to the Antichrist. With many more examples possible, the coinc iding of characteristics and actions of Kurtz and the Antichrist strongly support Heart of Darkness as being a story of the Antichrist and possible end times. In a similar fashion, the evolution of Marlowrs character throughout the story presents evidence as Kurtz being the Antichrist by straying followers away from God and righteousness. Marlow serves to represent a wanderer in the text as he is unsure of what to do in life as many other people and can be influenced to partake in questionable activities; thus, he naively voyages to Africa in search for meaning and eventually discovers Kurtz, who makes him a worse person. Long before meeting Kurtz in the story, Marlow talks about himself and adds, you know I hate, detest and cant bear a lie (Conrad 23). However, Marlow intentionally lies to Kurtzrs Intended at the end of the novella, where he informs her that Kurtzrs last words were her name. Despite his once vehement hatred of lying, Marlow succumbs to the action with little remorse. This presents an evolution of the dynamic character of Charles Marlow as he changed due to his venture toward Kurtz. Marlow no longer considers lying to be a n immoral action and, while only minor, has compromised moral integrity. Thus, the influence of Kurtz can be attributed to this weakening of character as Kurtz lures people, much like Marlow, to follow him rather than God (and simply put, Kurtz is not the most righteous of people). As Marlow and others seek meaning through Kurtz instead of a greater deity, they are merely fooled by the Antichrist and blindly become worse people due to the false shepherd. Kurtz leads people awry from their path to salvation and, therefore, serves as the Antichrist in Heart of Darkness. Kurtzrs mannerisms and actions present the case for him being the Antichrist. As a whole, Heart of Darkness then grows to present more than just a tale of Africa, but rather of a specific wanderer, Marlow, who was tricked by the supernatural capabilities of the Antichrist, Kurtz. Through is eloquence and other facets, drew in countless pilgrims to the dark land of Africa. Despite his moral stance, Marlow was incapable of avoiding the allure of Kurtz, which speaks volumes of human nature as a whole. Regardless of how high and mighty one may view their own self, everyone is vulnerable to the faults of human nature and being led astray by others. Thus, we as a society are far from perfect and while being misled by others, hopefully not the Antichrist, is counterproductive, it by no means eternally worsens anyone as they are always able to realize their fault and change. This ability to recover and adapt is one of the greatest attributes of human nature and negates many of the drawbacks of our civilization.

#MeToo Movement - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1352 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/04/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Social Justice Essay Did you like this example? The central issue presented by the #MeToo movement is sexual harassment. Feminist scholars argue that sexual harassment causes danger to women in general. Sexual harassment undermines womens workplace authority, reinforces sexual stereotypes about appropriate gender behavior, and reduces them to sexual objects. Were at a historic tipping point for women. In October 2017, the hashtag #MeToo spread across the globe. What began as a Hollywood sexual assault scandal sparked a public reckoning around the world. Thousands of women are using two words on social media to identify themselves as survivors of sexual harassment and assault. A year later, the election of Brett Kavanaugh for the supreme court raised the same issue, and the #MeToo movement is only rising in power. In order to understand how sexual harassment is framed by media, it is more important to examine how media frames the #MeToo movement. The #MeToo hashtag has often times been considered a social media trend, but hashtag activism has allowed for those two words to lead to social movement with rapid growth and mobility. Sexual abuse, which has been traditionally brushed aside due to the fear of shame, retribution and retaliation, did finally see the light. Social media has transformed social justice movements by allowing issues to be spread and mobilized faster than ever before, sparking of the #MeToo movement by way of mass communication. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "#MeToo Movement" essay for you Create order What started as Hollywoods biggest scandal, quickly turned into a movement to raise awareness for sexual assault by women who have been sexually assaulted or harassed. Harvey Weinstein, the man once synonymous with Hollywood whose alleged behavior started one of the most important conversations in the industrys history, began his epic fall from power one year ago. It all started with a few brave women coming forward about mistreatment at the hands of the Oscar-winning producer. As it stands, the allegations against Weinstein range from harassment to rape, include the stories of more than 80 women and span several decades. Upon all of the allegations and women coming forward about sexual misconduct in Hollywood, Alyssa Milano took to twitter to create a tweet that instantly became viral. She wrote, Suggested by a friend: If all the women who have been sexually harassed or assaulted wrote Me too as a status, we might give people a sense of the magnitude of the problem (2018). But the online movement didnt start with Milano. It started more than 10 years ago with activist Tarana Burke. According to her interview with the New York Times, in 1997, Tarana Burke sat across from a 13-year-old girl who had been sexually abused. The young girl was explaining her experience, and it left Ms. Burke speechless. That moment is where the Men Too campaign was born. Ten years later in 2006, she created a nonprofit organization that helps victims of sexual assault and harassment and provides resources for them. She named the movement Me Too and in October of 2017, those two words burst into the spotlight of social media with #MeToo, a hashtag promoted by the actress Alyssa Milano. According to the associate press, after her tweet, social media was soon flooded with stories of harassment and assault, as #MeToo became a way for users to tell their experience with sexual violence and stand in solidarity with other survivors. The hashtag was widely used on Twitter, Facebook, Snapchat and other platforms; on Facebook, it was shared in more than 12 million posts and reactions in the first 24 hours. #MeToo then acquired much backlash from men in fear as well as by critics of social media. According to the New York Post, surveys suggest that this year-long storm of allegations, confessions and firings has actually made Americans more skeptical about sexual harassment. The National Sexual Violence Resource Centre, an American non-profit organization, found that in 2017, 13% of Americans thought that false accusations were a bigger problem than unreported attacks, and in 2018, that increased to 18% of Americans (2018). The backlash of the movement is coming mostly from men. Men fear that anything they do or say to a woman will be used against them as sexual assault later, but the problem with this argument is that it is easy to identify what is sexual assault and harassment and what isnt. There should not be any fear or confusion, if men refrain from sexually assaulting or harassing women. The other argument against #MeToo, is the simplification of the movement to a social media tr end. Many argued that not everyone is on social media, and not everyone will receive the same voice for their stories like celebrities have. #MeToo rose to power surrounding the conversation of sexual assault and harassment in Hollywood, following the Harvey Weinstein case, but it far more than a trend like the Ice Bucket Challenge or Harlem Shake. #MeToo is a movement of activism using social media and the hashtag as a tool for spreading the word. The use of social media is not to be undermined as a trend, it is a game changer and 2018 and has completely shifted the conversation of sexual assault in harassment in just one year. The hard work of activists, advocates, and brave women around the world who have come forward to share their stories is finally paying off, according to a new study research firm Perry-Undem. According to this research, 43% of men surveyed in the recent study said the news coverage of sexual harassment and assault has made them reflect on their past interactions with women and whether or not they might have been interpreted as inappropriate. In the case of #MeToo, hashtag activism created mass awareness and understanding of the magnitude of this problem. According to Baran and Davis, mass communication is when a source, typically an organization, employs a technology as a medium to communicate with a large audience. Though it is just social media, whats especially significant about it being widely used as a hashtag is numbers. When women began using it, other victims saw that they were truly not alone, and it gave them more courage to come out. A post can be shared over and over again, across a wide range of audiences via social media. Celebrities may have a larger presence, but anyone with an account could post about it or see what other people they know are saying. Hashtags place several posts into one category for people to clearly see how many people were sharing posts using #MeToo. This empowers the victims while also creating an awareness that may not have otherwise existed. Word of mouth may spread fast, but social media spreads faster. Social media is a modern form of mass communication, and the ability to go viral, or just s pread to your local following, is enough to spark a movement if enough people are joining the conversation. Not only are people joining the conversation, but people now more than ever are listening. According to Charlotte Ryan, Kevin M. Carragee, and Cassie Schwerner in Media, Movements, and the Quest for social justice, social movements uses news media to broaden the discourse (1998). Social media, though a newer medium, also functions as a news outlet in many cases. Almost every popular and trustworthy outlet is on social media. They know that everyone is on social media, therefore it is the most effective way to ensure that news is being circulated to all audiences. According to Ryan, Carragee, and Schwerner, their focus on social movements rests on the assumption that meaningful political change and the expansion of social justice depend upon collective action (1998). Social media allows for millions of people to come together by sharing two words #MeToo. Social media makes it easy for people get engaged in the conversation, and even those who are silent or have their critiques, are at least becoming aware of the conversation. According to Ying Xiongs article on Hashtag Activism, the term is defined as the act of fighting for or supporting a cause with the use of hashtags as the primary channel to raise awareness of an issue and encourage debate via social media (2018). The hashtag is a frame used to pursue the goals of the advocates of the movement, which is social change.

Spiritual Gifts Sermon By Homi 860-397 Luo - 2998 Words

Spiritual Gifts Sermon HOMI 860-397 LUO Jonathan Behler L23929745 In today’s sermon we will be discussing the gifts of the Spirit. When we become indwelled by the Holy Spirit we receive spiritual blessings. Spiritual gifts are crucial to the growth of the church. If you are a Christian you possess a spiritual gift or gifts at the moment of salvation. Spiritual gifts edify the body of Christ. Today we will be focusing on what these gifts are and finding out more about their purpose in our lives. Scripture directs us to utilize our gifts to serve others within the church body. 1 Peter 2:10 (King James Version) says, â€Å"Each one should use whatever gift he has received to serve others, faithfully administering God’s grace in its various forms.† Paul tells us in 1 Corinthians 12:7-11 (King James Version), â€Å"Now to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good. To one there is given through the Spirit the message of wisdom, to another the message of knowledge by means of the same spirit, to another gifts of healing, by one Spirit, to another miraculous powers to another to another prophecy, to another distinguishing between spirits, to another speaking in different kinds of tongues and still another the interpretation of tongues, all these are the work of one of the same spirit and He gives them to each one as he determines.† We Christians are like body parts to Christ. But, it must beShow MoreRelatedThe Role Of The Holy Spirit3102 Words   |  13 Pages The Role of the Holy Spirit in Salvation HOMI 860-397 LUO Jonathan Behler L23929745 â€Æ' What is the Holy Spirit’s role in salvation? How can sinful man come to the saving knowledge of a Holy God? What part does the Holy Spirit play in regeneration? These are the questions we are going to investigate today. My intention with this sermon is to challenge us and encourage us in the sovereign work of the Holy Spirit in the regeneration of a soul. With that said let us

A Critical Evaluation of How Theories of Motor Learning free essay sample

Louise Warren Final Assignment Critically evaluate how theories of motor learning and motor control place varying degrees of importance upon feedback and emphasise different types of feedback. Research on motor learning and control has been debated for many years. According to Schmidt Wrisberg (2007, 5), Franklin M. Henry (1904-1993) was one of the pioneers of motor skill research in the laboratory at the University of California at Berkeley. Some of his students, including Richard Schmidt, whose work is discussed in this essay, went on to develop their own theories and lead enquiry into the motor skill field (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007). How we acquire motor skills, for example voluntary movements of the limbs, body and head, is the study of motor learning and motor control. This is achieved by the state of our â€Å"neuromuscular system† (Magill 2007, 3). Motor skills are produced through practice and become part of the long-term memory through repetition of skills (Wilmerding Krasnow 2009). Edward Thorndike (1874-1949), was considered to be one of the early researchers into the effects of stimulus-response in motor skill learning (Salmoni 1989, 197). Thorndike’s Connectionism is one of the models of motor skill learning which this essay will discuss in terms of how feedback impacts learning and what type of feedback can be considered in each case. An example of learning a motor skill A dance teacher working with a student wants to improve the execution of an assemble dessus. First she decides to take the student back to the barre to focus on the action of the leg as it quickly slides to the side from the demi-plie, while simultaneously pushing off the supporting leg, then joining (assembling) the feet in the air in 5th position (Royal Academy of Dance 997, 83). The use of the barre provides an aid in learning, to help the student control the speed of the step, assisting with stability in the upper body. The student may improve her technical understanding of the step in several ways: through attention, focus and observing the teacher demonstrate the step (Krasnow Chatfield 1996). Other ways include execution, feedback from the instructor and further repetition (Krasnow Chatfield 1996); although repetition in itself does not always improve performance and may depend on whether feedback is given (Wilmerding Krasnow 2009, 3). What is feedback? Feedback aids the student by giving them information on the state of their performance or actions (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007). There are two types of feedback: intrinsic and extrinsic, which is also known as augmented feedback (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 285). Intrinsic feedback is the â€Å"sensory-perceptual information that is a natural part of a performing skill† (Magill 2007, 332). This is information received through the senses. In the above teaching example, intrinsic feedback could be received visually, as the student observes the instructor demonstrate the correct execution; auditory, as she hears the sound of the foot swish against the floor before the jump and through proprioception, by feeling the forefoot push into the floor. Augmented or external feedback provides additional information to the student which they are unable to detect intrinsically, usually through an instructor or another external source such as video (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 286). Instructors will need to decide if augmented feedback is warranted depending on how complex the skill is and think about the experience of the learner by questioning are they beginners, or more advanced in their skill-set (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 295)? The response would then determine the type of training and feedback utilised, however the instructor also needs to make a comparison between knowledge and actual skill for example: A novice given complete information on how to ski, a set of decision rules, and then launched from a mountain top would most likely end up in an orthopaedic ward . Bandura cited in Salmoni 1989, 207 Augmented feedback can be further divided into two areas: knowledge of results (KR), which refers to the outcome of the performing skill (Magill 2007, 333) and knowledge of performance (KP), giving the student information about the â€Å"movement characteristics which [lead] to the performance outcome† (Magill 2007, 334). Using the teaching example previously, KR could be used to inform the student if she had reached appropriate learning outcomes for jumps: for example; â€Å"Secure, stretched leg extensions† (Royal Academy of Dance 2010) on the assembling of the legs in the air. KP can be utilised in dance teaching to provide feedback about the quality of the movement. In our example of the student practicing assemble dessus at the barre, KP may be used to help improve the movement; for example a teacher may give a verbal correction such as â€Å"ensure your knees are over your toes during the demi plie before the jump†. Thorndike’s Connectionism Thorndike believed that the learning process was evidenced as the strengthening of bonds between stimulus and response. Additionally, he believed that learning was a trial and error process (Salmoni 1989, 197). If the connection resulted in a â€Å"satisfying state of affairs† (Salmoni 1989, 197), and the outcome was encouraging to the subject, then the connection was strong. If, on the other hand, the outcome was not satisfying to the subject and was an â€Å"annoying state† (Salmoni 1989, 197); then the connection was weak (Salmoni 1989). This he described as the Law of Effect (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 312). He thought that external feedback as KR should be given after every movement task to aid learning in the absence of intrinsic feedback or the connection would not be strong (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 312). With regard to the frequency of KR feedback that Thorndike originally proposed in order for the strengthening of stimulus-response bonds, other theorist’s have since questioned this. More recent research has â€Å"concluded that decreased relative frequency of KR increased learning† (Salmoni, Schmidt and Walter cited in Salmoni 1989, 45). However, further experimental evidence did not fully support this hypothesis; but as a result, further enquiry was developed in this area (Salmoni 1989, 45). One of the negative aspects of frequent feedback has been discussed by Magill. He expresses a possible side-effect being â€Å"an attention-capacity overload† (Magill 2007, 359). Adams closed-loop theory Adams theory contrasted with Thorndike’s theory of stimulus response and its role in reinforcement of learning. He believed that during the initial stages of learning, knowledge of results was not responsible for strengthening the bonds between stimulus and response, but that it delivered error information to the subject, and influence subsequent performance trials (Salmoni 1989). This would allow them to make gradual adjustments to the movement to improve execution (Salmoni 1989). Adams construct utilised a â€Å"reference mechanism† (Adams 1976, 90) which referred to a perceptual trace and memory trace (Salmoni 1989, 201). Perceptual trace is explained as stored movement information in which the KR compares the desired movement with the current movement to inform and improve the acquisition of the skill (Adams 1976) and the â€Å"extent of the movement† (Salmoni 1989, 201). Memory trace is the initiation and choice of the movement (Brian Mac Sports Coach 2011[online]). In contrast to Thorndike’s theory, Adams believed that â€Å"delay of knowledge has no effect on movement acquisition† (Salmoni 1989, 201). However, he felt that during the initial stages of learning a movement, that knowledge of results was essential for acquisition of the skill and that withdrawal of feedback at this stage would adversely affect the learning outcome (Salmoni 1989). Adam’s theorised two stages of learning: the verbal – motor stage, which was the initial acquisition of the skill through verbal-cognitive control and motor-stage, in which the skill had become controlled internally and mostly â€Å"error free† (Salmoni 1989, 201). During the initial stages of acquiring a motor skill, feedback is given to inform the student of the status of the movement which will create a response. This could be either to carry on the movement as per initial instructions if it was correct, or give augmented feedback to improve or correct the movement error (Magill 2007). As the student constantly refers back to the reference model, he improves the motor skill to the point where feedback can be reduced and he has acquired the skill. This is the closed loop theory of learning. An example of closed loop learning could be viewed as a dance student learning to develop correct posture in a ballet class. The student first receives a visual aid feedback; for example, the teacher’s correct stance, or a picture or verbal description. The teacher gives the student feedback indicating whether she has achieved correct posture with the use of verbal and kinaesthetic (hands on) cues. Eventually, the student has the image internalised and reaches the motor skill stage where she no longer needs to be reminded of the correct stance for ballet. One of the limitations of this theory is that it is a time consuming process due to the system of constantly â€Å"comparing the actual and expected feedback† in order to control movements (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 74). Schmidt also expresses another limitation. He describes that closed-loop control can be â€Å"inadequate for performing skills that are brief in duration† (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 75); for example where a batter in a baseball game has to quickly asses a change in the direction of the ball in flight (Schmidt Wrisberg 2007, 75). Therefore, Adam’s closed loop theory seemed more suited to less complex skills (Rosenbaum 2009). However, as Salmoni expresses â€Å"the theory was responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in this area† (Salmoni 1989, 200) including Schmidt’s motor schema theory. Motor Schema theory In 1975, Richard Schmidt sought to continue research from Adams closed loop theory. He believed that the relationship formed between the acquired movement information and the subsequent evaluation of the motor responses would lead to the subject forming schemata which would â€Å"determine specific actions† (Jacko 2009, 398), in order to achieve learning outcomes. Recall schema, encompasses the initial motor learning experience, including the response specifications and outcomes; this was â€Å"response production† (Salmoni 1989, 201). Recognition schema also included internal and external feedback through sensory conditions (Salmoni 1989, 201) and considered the accuracy of the response (Salmoni 1989). Unlike Adams, he believed that actions are not stored in the memory as singular moves that are connected, but that we refer to abstract relationships and rules about movement (Brian Mac Sports Coach 2011[online]). His theory described an abstract class of movements known as a â€Å"generalized motor program† (Magill 2007, 89) or (GMP) in which the subject recalls a class of movements which is retrieved when a skill involving that class of movements is utilised (Magill 2007). This theory was designed to improve discrete movement skills and use practice variables to ensure the class of movements could occur in a variety of situations (Leitch 2011). Examples of these movements could be the actions of: a tennis serve, bowling a ball and a golf swing. . Schmidt’s theory placed an emphasis on knowledge of results to strengthen both recall and recognition schemas (Salmoni 1989). According to Sherwood Lee (2003, 378) both KP and KR were used frequently after every movement trial to aid in the evaluation of the ideal movement, therefore; â€Å"updating the memory representation† (Sherwood Lee 2003, 378). Schmidt believed that withdrawal of KR would weaken the â€Å"recognition schema† (Sherwood Lee 2003, 381). However, subsequent research has questioned the effectiveness of immediate feedback in retention and transfer of learning tests (Sherwood Lee 2003, 378). This is evidenced by Swinnen (1996, 52), who explains that the learner may develop an overdependence on continuous feedback which then becomes part of the process, thereby affecting internal processing. An example of over-use of feedback could be viewed where a dance teacher constantly dances with the students, cues them before every exercise and corrects many aspects of the step. The students may not internalise the organisation of the steps by copying the movements of the teacher, or develop a reliance on the cues and corrections to remind them of the composition. However, observational learning, not copying without internalising the movement, can lead to motor skill learning as discussed in the next example. Bandura’s Model of Observation learning Albert Bandura regards motor skill learning as the act of the learner acquiring information of movement patterns from verbal instruction and modelling (demonstrating). Augmented and intrinsic feedback further strengthens the learning process. He believes that observational learning occurs due to the subject viewing the â€Å"effects of their actions during enactive learning† (Salmoni 1989, 204). Bandura’s theory is also known as â€Å"cognitive mediation theory† (Magill 2007, 318) and describes four processes. Firstly, attention; how the learner focuses attention on the task and factors which affect this (Learning Theories Knowledgebase 2011[online]). He believed that it was important for the learner to pay full attention and not just observe (watching passively) to affect optimal learning (Magill 2007, 318). Secondly, in the retention process of the observed action, memory of the task occurs including organising mental images and motor rehearsal (Magill 2007). Thirdly, during the reproduction process, the mental image of the action is turned into a physical action. At this stage successful production of the action depends on the capability of the learner (Magill 2007). The final step in Bandura’s theory is motivation; there must be a good reason (an incentive) for the learner to imitate the task (Learning Theories Knowledgebase 2011[online]). Motivation can influence a students desire to continue with the task. This is often delivered through encouraging (positive) verbal feedback to indicate how well a student is performing. Research has shown this can be effective in helping to develop a student’s self-efficacy (Magill 2007, 335). According to Bandura, without all four processes completed, the action will not be performed (Magill 2007, 318). According to Salmoni, Bandura’s theory was similar to Schmidt’s in that he â€Å"believes that people learn generative rules of action rather than specific action patterns† (Salmoni 1989, 204). Progress is monitored through feedback and movement corrections which correspond with the desired action (Salmoni 1989). Through observing the model and also receiving verbal feedback, some researches have found an increase in self-efficacy leading the learner to have belief in their ability and result in greater motivation (Zetou et al. 2008). This can be achieved through observing an expert perform the skill to a high level or watching themselves via video and receiving feedback. A study by Tzetzis, et al. cited in Zetou et al. (2008) compared self-modelling, (the subject observing themselves); observing experts with verbal feedback and the use of traditional teaching methods in novice skiers. The results indicated that the self-modelling and observing experts approach produced superior outcomes to the traditional teaching methods (Zetou et al. 2008). However it was noted that care must be taken to ensure the students are not focusing on observing the negative aspects of their own performance which can lead to a decrease in motivation (Alkire et al in Zetou et al. 2008). Observational learning can be incorporated into a dance classroom by using different teaching strategies. Here is an example discussed by Richard Glasstone (1999). Dancers learn through visual observation †¦Teaching them to watch each other carefully is one of the best ways of helping them to correct their own faults. † Richard Glasstone 1999, 61 However, as with other motor learning theories, more research is needed in order to better understand exactly how movement cues are learnt; in this case, through observation and that â€Å"a comprehensive theoretical model† (Scully Newell cited in Salmoni 1989, 208) needs to be developed. Conclusion